1. Explain the context in which global conflict developed in the 20th century.
   1. Total war and political instability in the first half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during the Cold War and eventually to efforts at transnational union.
      1. In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization.
   2. The stresses of economic collapse and total war engendered internal conflicts within European states and created conflicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and among democracy, communism, and fascism.
   3. During the 20th century, diverse intellectual and cultural movements questioned the existence of objective knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of religion in determining moral standards.
2. Explain the causes and effects of the global economic crisis in the 1920s and 1930s.
   1. The Great Depression, caused by weaknesses in international trade and monetary theories and practices, undermined Western European democracies and fomented radical political responses throughout Europe.
      • Illustrative Examples of New economic theories and policies: Keynesianism in Britain, Cooperative social action in Scandinavia, Popular Front policies in France
      1. World War I debt, nationalistic tariff policies, overproduction, depreciated currencies, disrupted trade patterns, and speculation created weaknesses in economies worldwide.
      2. Dependence on post-World War I American investment capital led to financial collapse when, following the 1929 stock market crash, the United States cut off capital flows to Europe.
      3. Despite attempts to rethink economic theories and policies and forge political alliances, Western democracies failed to overcome the Great Depression and were weakened by extremist movements.
         • Illustrative Examples of Political alliance: National government in Britain, Popular Fronts in France and Spain
3. Explain the factors that led to the development of fascist and totalitarian regimes in the aftermath of World War I.
   1. The ideology of fascism, with roots in the pre-World War I era, gained popularity in an environment of postwar bitterness, the rise of communism, uncertain transitions to democracy, and economic instability.
      1. Fascist dictatorships used modern technology and propaganda that rejected democratic institutions, promoted charismatic leaders, and glorified war and nationalism to attract the disillusioned.
         • Illustrative Examples of Fascist propaganda: Radio, Joseph Goebbels, Leni Riefenstahl, Architecture, Cult of personality
      2. Mussolini and Hitler rose to power by exploiting postwar bitterness and economic instability, using terror, and manipulating the fledgling and unpopular democracies in their countries.
      3. Franco’s alliance with Italian and German fascists in the Spanish Civil War – in which the Western democracies did not intervene – represented a testing ground for World War II and resulted in authoritarian rule in Spain from 1936 to the mid-1970s.
      4. After failures to establish functioning democracies, authoritarian dictatorships took power in central and eastern Europe during the interwar period.
         • Illustrative Examples of Authoritarian dictatorship in central and eastern Europe: Poland, Hungary, Romania
4. Explain the consequences of Stalin’s economic policies and totalitarian rule in the Soviet Union.
   1. After Lenin’s death, Stalin undertook a centralized program of rapid economic modernization, often with severe repercussions for the population.
      • Illustrative Examples of the Soviet Union’s rapid economic modernization: Collectivization, Five Year Plan
   2. Stalin’s economic modernization of the Soviet Union came at a high price, including the liquidation of the kulaks (the land-owning peasantry) and other perceived enemies of the state, devastating famine in the Ukraine, purges of political rivals, and, ultimately, the creation of an oppressive political system.
      • Illustrative Examples of the Soviet Union’s oppressive political system: Great purges, Gulags, Secret police
5. Explain how and why various political and ideological factors resulted in the catastrophe of World War II.
   1. French and British fears of another war, American isolationism, and deep distrust between Western democratic, capitalist nations and the authoritarian, communist Soviet Union allowed fascist states to rearm and expand their territory.
      • Illustrative Examples of Fascist states’ expansion allowed by European powers: Remilitarization of the Rhineland, Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Annexation of Austria, Munich Agreement and its violation, Nazi Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
   2. In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization.
6. Explain how and why various political and ideological factors resulted in the catastrophe of World War II.
   1. French and British fears of another war, American isolationism, and deep distrust between Western democratic, capitalist nations and the authoritarian, communist Soviet Union allowed fascist states to rearm and expand their territory.
      • Illustrative Examples of Fascist states’ expansion allowed by European powers: Remilitarization of the Rhineland, Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Annexation of Austria, Munich Agreement and its violation, Nazi Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
   2. In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization.
7. Explain how economic challenges and ideological beliefs influenced prior conceptions about the relationship between the individual and the state.
   1. Total war and political instability in the first half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during the Cold War and eventually to efforts at transnational union.
      1. World War I, caused by a complex interaction of long- and short-term factors, resulted in immense losses and disruptions for both victors and vanquished.
      2. The conflicting goals of the peace negotiators in Paris pitted diplomatic idealism against the desire to punish Germany, producing a settlement that satis ed few.
      3. In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization.
   2. The stresses of economic collapse and total war engendered internal conflicts within European states and created conflicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and among democracy, communism, and fascism.
   3. During the 20th century, diverse intellectual and cultural movements questioned the existence of objective knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of religion in determining moral standards.
      1. Science and technology yielded impressive material benefits but also caused immense destruction and posed challenges to objective knowledge.
   4. Demographic changes, economic growth, total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing definitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of everyday life.
      1. The 20th century was characterized by large-scale suffering brought on by warfare and genocide, but also by tremendous improvements in the standard of living.

Chapter 26 Introduction
Chapter 26 Summary
Chapter 26 Glossary
Chapter 26 Reading Guide
Chapter 26 Outline
Chapter 26 Overview
Chapter 26 Old-Style M-C Test: Questions Answers
Chapter 26 Scan