1. Explain the context in which the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment developed in Europe.
   1. The experiences of everyday life were shaped by demographic, environmental, medical, and technological changes.
      1. By the 18th century, family and private life reflected new demographic patterns and the effects of the commercial revolution.
2. Explain the factors contributing to and the consequences of demographic changes from 1648 to 1815.
   1. In the 17th century, small landholdings, low-productivity agricultural practices, poor transportation, and adverse weather limited and disrupted the food supply, causing periodic famines. By the 18th century, the balance between population and the food supply stabilized, resulting in steady population growth.
      1. By the middle of the 18th century, higher agricultural productivity and improved transportation increased the food supply, allowing populations to grow and reducing the number of demographic crises (a process known as the Agricultural Revolution).
      2. In the 18th century, plague disappeared as a major epidemic disease, and inoculation reduced smallpox mortality.
         • Illustrative Examples: Lady Mary Wortley Montagu
   2. Although the rate of illegitimate births increased in the 18th century, population growth was limited by the European marriage pattern, and in some areas by various birth control methods
   3. As infant and child mortality decreased, and commercial wealth increased, families dedicated more space and resources to children and child-rearing, as well as private life and comfort.
   4. Cities offered economic opportunities, which attracted increasing migration from rural areas, transforming urban life and creating challenges for the new urbanites and their families.
      1. The Agricultural Revolution produced more food using fewer workers; as a result, people migrated from rural areas to the cities in search of work.
      2. The growth of cities eroded traditional communal values, and city governments strained to provide protection and a healthy environment.
      3. The concentration of the poor in cities led to a greater awareness of poverty, crime, and prostitution as social problems, and prompted increased efforts to police marginal groups.
3. Explain how different forms of political power were influenced by Enlightenment thought from 1648 to 1815.
   1. In the 18th century, a number of states in eastern and central Europe experimented with enlightened absolutism.
      • Illustrative Examples: Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria
   2. By 1800, most governments in western and central Europe had extended toleration to Christian minorities and, in some states, civil equality to Jews.
4. Explain how and why political and religious developments challenged or reinforced the idea of a unified Europe from 1648 to 1815.
   1. As a result of the Holy Roman Empire s limitation of sovereignty in the Peace of Westphalia, Prussia rose to power, and the Habsburgs, centered in Austria, shifted their empire eastward.
      • Illustrative Examples: Maria Theresa of Austria, Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria
5. Explain the causes and consequences of European maritime competition from 1648 to 1815.
   1. The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network.
      1. Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among European states in the early modern era.
      2. European sea powers vied for Atlantic influence throughout the 18th century.
      3. Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British rivalries in Asia culminated in British domination in India and Dutch control of the East Indies.
6. Explain the economic and political consequences of the rivalry between Britain and France from 1648 to 1815.
   1. Rivalry between Britain and France resulted in world wars fought both in Europe and in the colonies, with Britain supplanting France as the greatest European power.
      • Illustrative Examples: Seven Years’ War, American Revolution
7. Explain how the developments and challenges to the political order resulted in change in the period from 1648 to 1815.
   1. Different models of political sovereignty affected the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
   2. The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network.
      1. Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among European states in the early modern era.

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