1. Explain the technological factors that facilitated European exploration and expansion from 1450 to 1648.
   1. Advances in navigation, cartography, and military technology enabled Europeans to establish overseas colonies and empires.
      • Illustrative Examples: compass, sternpost rudder, portolani, quadrant and sextant, lateen rig
      • Illustrative Examples: gunpowder, guns
2. Explain the motivations for and effects of European exploration and expansion from 1450 to 1648.
   1. European states sought direct access to gold, spices, and luxury goods to enhance personal wealth and state power.
      • Illustrative Examples: Spanish in the New World, Portuguese in Indian Ocean World, Dutch in the East Indies/Asia
   2. The rise of mercantilism gave the state a new role in promoting commercial development and the acquisition of colonies overseas.
      • Illustrative Example: Jean-Baptiste Colbert in France
   3. Christianity was a stimulus for exploration as governments and religious authorities sought to spread the faith, and for some it served as a justification for the subjugation of indigenous civilizations.
      • Illustrative Example Jesuit activities
3. Explain how and why trading networks and colonial expansion affected relations between and among European states.
   1. Europeans established overseas empires and trade networks through coercion and negotiation.
      1. The Spanish established colonies across the Americas, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, which made Spain a dominant state in Europe in the 16th century.
      2. The Atlantic nations of France, England, and the Netherlands followed by establishing their own colonies and trading networks to compete with Portuguese and Spanish dominance in the 17th century.
      3. The competition for trade led to conflicts and rivalries among European powers in the 17th and 18th centuries.
         • Illustrative Examples: Treaty of Tordesillas, asiento, War of Spanish Succession, Seven Years’ War
4. Explain the economic impact of European colonial expansion and development of trade networks.
   1. The Portuguese established a commercial network along the African coast, in South and East Asia, and in South America in the late 15th and throughout the 16th centuries.
   2. Europe s colonial expansion led to a global exchange of goods, flora, and fauna; a shift toward European dominance; and the expansion of the slave trade.
      • Illustrative Examples: sugar, tea, silks and other fabrics, rum, coffee
   3. The exchange of goods shifted the center of economic power in Europe from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic states and brought the latter into an expanding world economy.
   4. The exchange of new plants, animals, and diseases – the Columbian Exchange – created economic opportunities for Europeans.
5. Explain the social and cultural impact of European colonial expansion and development of trade networks.
   1. Europe s colonial expansion led to a global exchange of goods, flora, fauna, cultural practices, and diseases, resulting in the destruction of some indigenous civilizations, a shift toward European dominance, and the expansion of the slave trade.
   2. The exchange of new plants, animals, and diseases – the Columbian Exchange – in some cases facilitated European subjugation and destruction of indigenous peoples, particularly in the Americas.
6. Explain the social and cultural impact of European colonial expansion and development of trade networks.
   1. Europe’s colonial expansion led to a global exchange of goods, flora, fauna, cultural practices, and diseases, resulting in the destruction of some indigenous civilizations, a shift toward European dominance, and the expansion of the slave trade.
   2. The exchange of new plants, animals, and diseases – the Columbian Exchange – in some cases facilitated European subjugation and destruction of indigenous peoples, particularly in the Americas.
7. Explain the causes for and the development of the slave trade.
   1. Europeans expanded the African slave trade in response to the establishment of a plantation economy in the Americas and demographic catastrophes among indigenous peoples.
      • Illustrative Examples: Middle Passage, Triangular Trade
8. Explain European commercial and agricultural developments and their economic effects from 1450 to 1648.
   1. Innovations in banking and finance promoted the growth of urban financial centers and a money economy.
      • Illustrative Examples: double-entry bookkeeping, Bank of Amsterdam, Dutch East India Company, British East India Company
   2. Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and oriented their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor, although economic changes began to alter rural production and power.
      1. Subsistence agriculture was the rule in most areas, with three-crop field rotation in the north and two-crop rotation in the Mediterranean; in many cases, farmers paid rent and labor services for their lands.
      2. The price revolution contributed to the accumulation of capital and the expansion of the market economy through the commercialization of agriculture, which bene ted large landowners in western Europe.
      3. Population recovered to its pre-Great Plague level in the 16th century, and continuing population pressures contributed to uneven price increases; agricultural commodities increased more sharply than wages, reducing living standards for some.
   3. Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of hierarchy and status continued.
      1. The growth of commerce produced a new economic elite, which related to traditional land-holding elites in different ways in Europe s various geographic regions.
   4. As western Europe moved toward a free peasantry and commercial agriculture, serfdom was codified in the east, where nobles continued to dominate economic life on large estates.
   5. The attempts of landlords to increase their revenues by restricting or abolishing the traditional rights of peasants led to revolt.
      • Illustrative Examples: enclosure movement, restricted use of village common, freehold tenure
   6. Migrants to the cities challenged the ability of merchant elites and craft guilds to govern, and strained resources.
      • Illustrative Examples: sanitation problems, employment, poverty, crime
   7. From the late 16th century on, Europeans responded to economic and environmental challenges, such as the Little Ice Age, by delaying marriage and childbearing. This European marriage pattern restrained population growth and ultimately improved the economic condition of families.
9. Explain the causes and consequences of the Renaissance and Age of Discovery
   1. The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many Europeans view of their world.
      1. A revival of classical texts led to new methods of scholarship and new values in both society and religion.
      2. The visual arts incorporated the new ideas of the Renaissance and were used to promote personal, political, and religious goals.
   2. Europeans explored and settled overseas territories, encountering and interacting with indigenous populations.
      1. European nations were driven by commercial and religious motives to explore overseas European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence of medieval social and economic structures.
   3. European society and the experiences ofeveryday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence
      1. Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of hierarchy and status continued.
      2. Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and oriented their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor, although economic changes began to alter rural production and power.
   4. The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
      1. The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played a central role in the creation of new political institutions.

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