AP European History
AP European History
Almost all the “isms” of the nineteenth century (Romanticism, Liberalism, Nationalism, Socialism, Conservatism, and Radicalism) came from either the Enlightenment or the French Revolution (or as a reaction to the French Revolutions).
Conservatism conservatives tended to justify the status quo, defend tradition and hierarchy, and stress the limitations of human understanding. Conservatism arose mainly from Edmund Burke, and Englishman who stated that society exists through a continuity of the traditions that have developed over the years. Although Burke allowed for gradual change in theory, he mainly supported established institutions. Other conservatives, Joseph de Maistre and Louis de Bonald stated that society, in order to preserve itself, had to keep close control on dangerous ideas of reform.
By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the original social pyramid structure of society was being transformed into different, more fluid, classes – and social relationships were becoming matters of contact between individuals. The classes were as follows:
1. Aristocracy although the aristocrats did lost much of their influence, they remained a potent force throughout Europe. The aristocracy continued to control most of the wealth of the country and still dominated the administration and the military. The aristocrats held on to more power in the south and east, though, for, there, they in effect had control over the peasant masses.
2. Peasants most Europeans were peasants. The peasants felt the effects of change as agriculture became more commercial (profits increased) and technology changed, but the big change for most peasants was the emancipation of the peasants from feudal obligations, which encouraged peasants to enter the commercial market. But, on the other hand, the decline of local industries (putting-out system) made the peasants even more dependent on small plots of land. In general, peasants stuck by tradition, although they could also become major political forces in some cases.
3. Workers a new class, the industrial workers lived dependent on their employers and often made barely enough to keep alive. They often lived in dirty slums, with special restrictions on their rights, etc. Workers were clearly an emerging political force in society, one the upper classes (rightly) feared. But, although there were attempts to make organized labor movements, for the most part, the vast majority of the working class remained defenseless without the skills to organize well.
4. Artisans/Skilled Workers the most independent workers, the artisans continued to live by a hierarchy of masters and apprentices. They did benefit from industrialization, and, unlike the factory workers, did have the organization and education to organize effectively to improve conditions.
5. Middle Class the most confident and assertive class, the middle class ranged from the great bankers to the petit bourgeoisie (clerks, shopkeepers, etc.) and was held together by shared ideals and common interests 97 all were opposed to special privileges and saw themselves as the beneficiaries of careers open to talent. Essentially an urban class, they liked to see themselves as self-made. They were associated with the liberal ideology of the time, and pushed for moderation.
During this time, the population also increased (due to fewer diseases, increased food supply and a lower of the age at which people married) and cities grew greatly.
This in turn led to terrible conditions in the cities, and efforts to improve them through charities and government laws concerning public welfare.
Charity was mainly conducted by the middle class and the very religious, and mostly by women. Although the charities helped a few, they were not sufficient, and government intervention was required to fix the situation. By mid-century, housing and sanitary codes regulated most cities.
Later, governments also began to regulate child labor and stop vagrancy. Education became a matter of national policy as well, and most countries established compulsory public schooling.