The Enlightenment
The Definition of the Enlightenment
- The Enlightenment was a period of time in which many intellectuals, who were called philosophes, began to question the traditions of society and to look at the universe in a scientific, critical light.
- During the Enlightenment, all the trademark aspects of European society were exposed to criticism and analysis through reason. No institution was spared, for even the church itself was attacked by the cynical philosophes. Though the Enlightenment began as a movement that only reached the intellectual elite of society, its repercussions would eventually reach and have a big impact on society as a whole.
The Beliefs of the Philosophes
- The philosophes, a group of intellectuals who supported the ideals of the Enlightenment, stood for a series of beliefs, which they stood for, regardless of the cost. These ideas included:
- Reason the universe can be explained through reason, as can all human institutions. The philosophes thought that reason could be applied to everything, and that it could be used to correct the problems in society.
- Skepticism the philosophes believed that everything should be open to questioning and criticism, even religion. They disliked dogma, superstition, and blind faith.
- Toleration both religious and intellectual. They felt that all ideas were equally valid, and that people should have the freedom to express themselves and their ideas.
- Freedom that is, intellectual freedom, an idea closely linked to toleration. They felt that people should have free speech, press, and freedom of religion. They felt that each person should have the opportunity to reason things out for themselves.
- Equality based on Locke’s tabula rasa – all people are equal.
- Education again, based on Locke. They believed that education could eventually lead to a perfect society, a paradise of reason and toleration.
- Optimism very optimistic, believed in science bringing progress.
- Enlightened Despotism for many kings, enlightened despotism (“I am ruling b/c I can be a servant of the state and bring the enlightenment to my people”) replaced divine right monarchy and other justifications for ruling.
The Famous Philosophes
- Voltaire our favorite! Voltaire is often regarded as the leading figure of the Enlightenment. A talented writer, Voltaire stood for many of the ideals of the period. First of all, he greatly admired science and helped to popularize it. In 1738, he wrote Elements of the Philosophy of Newton, which attempted to make Newton’s discoveries understandable. Voltaire greatly admired the English, for he felt their society had allowed greats like Locke, Bacon and Newton to rise, and in 1734 he wrote the Philosophical Letters on the English, which celebrated English toleration. Also, Voltaire absolutely hated religion (actually he didn’t hate religion per se, but he really hated intolerance) and he wrote The Philosophical Dictionary in 1764, which stated that organized religion bred intolerance and superstition. Voltaire was a deist, and felt religion should be a private matter. Throughout his life, Voltaire faced persecution and censorship, and as a result, he was a dedicated advocator of intellectual and religious freedom. Voltaire was a brilliant satirical writer (Candide) and literary critic who poked fun at every element of society (which is why all his books were banned).
- Diderot most famous for his Encyclopedia, Diderot also wrote a series of novels, plays, math theorems, and works on religion and morality. His most original works examined the role of passion in human personality and in morality. Diderot often felt that his contemporaries overemphasized reason over passion. He also sometimes criticized religion, and ended up as an atheist. But his most important work was the Encyclopedia, which classified all human knowledge from the most common to the most complex. The aim of the book was to “change the general way of thinking.” The book treated religion w/artful satire, analyzing it like any other topic. Science was the core of the book, and scientific techniques and discoveries were presented in it. Economically, the Encyclopedia supported the Physiocratic view against trade restrictions. The Encyclopedia was banned in many places, but it was still distributed, and had a great impact on the intellectuals of Europe.
- Jean d’Alembert famous French mathematician.
- Baron de Montesquieu wrote The Spirit of the Laws, a book that described an ideal system of government using checks and balances. He believed that societies and political institutions could be studied scientifically, and that a balanced government would lead to success.
- David Hume he was the empiricism who made that stupid argument about the tree falling in the forest. He hated dogma, and I mean really hated it. He went around proving how everybody was wrong. He was an atheist and he didn’t believe in any general knowledge, so who knows what he did believe in. Anyhow, he wrote Inquiry into Human Nature that criticized Christianity.
- Adam Smith that economist dude. Not that important. He only came up with an entire new philosophy on economics but that isn’t part of this chapter so look at the other outline!
- Immanuel Kant a brilliant philosopher, he stated that Hume woke him from his “dogmatic slumber” and believed that reality and perception were two different things. However, he believed that so long as it is organized by certain concepts, like cause and effect, science is still valid.
- Cesare Beccaria was an economist and penal reformer who wrote On Crimes and Punishments, which argued for human rights and humanitarianism.
- Edward Gibbon historian who criticized Christianity and held it responsible for the fall of the Roman Empire in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
