AP European History
AP European History
The Counter Reformation brought changes to the portion of the Western church which retained its allegiance to the pope. Some historians see this as a reform of the Catholic church, similar to what Protestants were doing, while others see it as a result of the criticisms of Protestants.
Efforts to reform the church were given new impetus by Luther’s activities. These included new religious orders such as Capuchins (1528), Theatines (1534) and Ursulines (1535), as well as mystics such as Teresa of Avila (1515-1582).
St. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), a former soldier, founded the Society of Jesus in 1540 to lead the attack on Protestantism. Jesuits, trained pursuant to ideas found in Ignatius’ Spiritual Exercises, had dedication and determination and became the leaders in the Counter Reformation. In addition to serving in Europe, by the 1540s Jesuits, including St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552), traveled to Japan as missionaries.
Popes resisted reforming efforts because of fears as to what a council of church leaders might do to papal powers. The Sack of Rome in 1527, when soldiers of the Holy Roman Emperor captured and looted Rome, was seen by many as a judgment of God against the lives of the Renaissance popes. In 1534, Paul III became pope and attacked abuses while reasserting papal leadership.
Convened by Paul III and firmly under papal control, the Council of Trent met in three sessions from 1545 to 1563. It settled many aspects of doctrine including transubstantiation, the seven sacraments, the efficacy of good works for salvation, and the role of saints and priests. It also approved the “Index of Forbidden Books.”
Other reforms came into effect. The sale of church offices was curtailed. New seminaries for more and better trained clergy were created. The revitalized Catholic church, the papacy, and the Jesuits set out to reunite Western Christianity.
Individuals who adopted other views but who had less impact on large groups of people included Thomas Muntzer (d. 1525), Caspar Schwenckfeld (d. 1561), Michael Servetus (d. 1553), and Lelio Sozzini (d. 1562).
The Reformation produced much thought and writing about the beliefs of Christianity. Most of the major divisions of the Western church took differing positions on these matters of doctrine. Some thinkers, such as Martin Bucer, a reformer in Strasbourg, believed many things, such as the ring in the marriage ceremony, were “things indifferent” – Christians could differ in their beliefs on such issues – but with the increasing rigidity of various churches, such views did not dominate.
The role of the Bible was emphasized by Protestants while Catholics included the traditions developed by the church during the Middle Ages, as well as papal pronouncements.
Catholics retained the medieval view about the special nature and role of clergy while Protestants emphasized the “priesthood of all believers,” which meant all individuals were equal before God. Protestants sought a clergy that preached. Church governance varied widely:
Most Protestants denied the efficacy of some or all of the sacraments of the medieval church. The issue which most divided the various churches came to be the one called by various names: the Eucharist, the mass, the Lord’s supper, the communion:
Transubstantiation. The bread and wine retain their outward appearances but the substances are transformed into the body and blood of Christ; this was a Catholic doctrine.
Consubstantiation. Nothing of the bread and wine is changed but the believer realizes the presence of Christ in the bread and wine-a piece of iron thrust into the fire does not change its composition but still has a differing quality; this was a Lutheran doctrine.
Other views included ones that the event was a symbolic one, utilizing the community of believers. It served as a memorial to the actions of Christ, or was a thanksgiving for God’s grant of salvation. The means of obtaining salvation differed:
Relation of the church to the state also differed:
By 1560, attitudes were hardening and political rulers understood the benefits and disadvantages of religion, be it Catholic or Protestant. The map of Europe and its religions did not change much after 1560.
Political rulers, be they monarchs or city councils, gained power over and at the expense of the church. The state thereafter could operate as an autonomous unit.
Religious enthusiasm was rekindled. While most of the reforms came from the political and religious leadership of the societies involved, the general populace eventually gained enthusiasm- an enthusiasm lacking in religious belief since far back into the Middle Ages.
All aspects of Western Christianity undertook to remedy the abuses which had contributed to the Reformation. Simony, pluralism, immoral or badly educated clergy were all attacked and, by the seventeenth century, considerably remedied.
Protestantism, by emphasizing the individual believer’s direct contact with God, rather than through the intermediary of the church, contributed to the growth of individualism.
Thinkers have attempted to connect religious change with economic developments, especially the appearance of capitalism. Karl Marx, a nineteenth-century philosopher and social theorist, believed that capitalism, which emphasized hard work, thrift, and the use of reason rather than tradition, led to the development of Protestantism, a type of Christianity he thought especially attractive to the middle class who were also the capitalists.
Max Weber, a later nineteenth-century sociologist, reversed the argument and believed that Protestantism, especially Calvinism, with its emphasis on predestination, led to great attention being paid to the successes and failures of this world as possible signs of future salvation. Such attention, and the attendant hard work, furthered the capitalist spirit. Most writers today accept neither view but believe Protestantism and capitalism are related; however, too many other factors are involved to make the connection clear or easy.