AP European History
AP European History
The Protestant Reformation brought many people into the Protestant fold and caused a noticeable decrease in the number of European Catholics. After several decades of Protestantism, the Catholic Church officially responded with its own reformation known as the Catholic Reformation or Counter Reformation. The Catholic Church, beginning with leadership of Pope Paul III, developed groups such as the Ursuline Order and the Jesuits to counter the actions of the Protestants and to bring souls back to the Catholic Church. The Church issued the Index of Prohibited Books mat listed those books the Church deemed inappropriate and dangerous. This index included many writers such as Desiderius Erasmus. The Church revived the Inquisition and ruthlessly sought out and burned heretics. The most influential instrument of the Catholic Reformation, though, was the Council of Trent.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563) sought to answer the rheological and philosophical questions raised by the Protestant Reformation. The Council affirmed that Church doctrine concerning the sacraments, the priesthood, and salvation were firmly rooted in both the Scriptures and in Church tradition. The Council determined that the sacraments and transubstantiation were valid, salvation was attained by both faith and by good works, and that monasticism and clerical celibacy were justified. The Council also addressed simony, indulgences, and issues relating to the clergy. Ultimately, the Council of Trent limited the sales of church positions and indulgences and decided that members of the clergy should receive a seminary education. The Council also called for more religious art to be produced. Modern historians have debated over the significance of the Council of Trent as it relates to the overall success of the Counter Reformation. However, most historians agree that the Council did increase the power and influence of the papacy.
First and foremost, the power and prestige of the Catholic Church in Europe suffered heavy blows by the Protestant movement. England, Scotland, Switzerland, Scandinavia, and parts of France and Germany all became Protestant. This resulted in a major split in Christendom. In effect, a new antagonistic element had been introduced into European politics and culture; this element was the Protestant-versus-Catholic mentality that, to this day, survives in many parts of Europe. Wars of religion erupted in Europe for nearly a century. Social and political interpretations of Protestantism led to nationalistic movements because of the idea that the state was superior to the church in all matters other than the spiritual.
Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) – Ignatius of Loyola was born in Spain and grew up as a page to Ferdinand V of Castile. When he was old enough, Loyola entered the military. While recovering from being wounded in battle, he spent his time reading about the lives of saints. Deeply affected by the reading, Loyola decided to live the rest of his life as one of piety. He lived in a cave for several months and then journeyed to Jerusalem. After some study, Loyola founded the Society of Jesus, or the Jesuits. They were committed to pious living and education. The Jesuits played a major role in the Counter Reformation. Loyola wrote Constitutions of the Order concerning the Society of Jesus, and he wrote Spiritual Exercises, a manual on spiritual meditation. Loyola was canonized, or made a saint, in 1622.