AP European History

AP Achiever by Chris Freiler

The Reformation

Calvin’s Second Wave

By 1540, the Protestant Reformation already required a boost; John Calvin (1509-1564) provided just that. A second-generation reformer, Calvin was born in France and received a strong humanist education. Unlike Luther, Calvin studied to be a priest but switched to the legal profession, which may account for the strong images in Calvinism of God as the omnipotent sovereign and law-giver. Calvin set up his reform movement in Switzerland, and after some initial turmoil was recognized as the unquestioned leader of Geneva.

Calvin accepted much of Luther’s reformed theology (justification by faith alone, two sacraments) but placed more emphasis on predestination, the notion that God foreknows and forejudges salvation for each person before birth. Those who had been saved (“the elect”) did not suffer from spiritual complacency, as one might expect, but exhibited a zealous determination to create the “Most Holy City on Earth.” In Institutes of the Christian Religion, published in numerous editions, Calvin synthesized reformed theology and provided a practical program for founding a reformed religion: Genevan politics were guided by the Ecclesiastical Ordinances, which divided the church into doctors (who studied scripture), pastors (who preached the word of God), deacons (who administered charity), and elders (who ensured discipline). Elders employed the Consistory to practice “Christian watchfulness” and monitor public morality, such as public drunkenness or gambling. Compared with Luther, Calvin believed the political system must uphold the moral law of a Christian community. Though not a theocracy, church leaders played a major role in ensuring public affairs were governed by church teachings. Calvinism spread quickly among the nobility and the middle class, many of whom likely believed themselves to be the elect and who resented the privileges of the clergy. To promote the spread of the Reformation, Calvin founded the Genevan Academy in 1559 to train leaders who would sow the seeds of Calvinism in other locales. Its most famous graduate was John Knox (1505-1572), who established Calvinism in Scotland. Taking their cue from their leader and their minority status in most nations, Calvinists represented the forefront of a militant Protestant movement dedicated to battling the still-strong power of Catholicism.

Evangelical Reformers

Some historians divide the Reformation into evangelical (or radical) and magisterial branches. The former refers to the grassroots movement of individual persons, towns, and communities spreading the new reform gospel through preaching, conversion, and town disputations. Some religious reforms, however, were imposed from the top down, by magistrates, princes, and monarchs. We’ll discuss the most famous example of this magisterial reform in the next section, but for now, let’s examine some of the radical reformers.

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) served as a chaplain to the many Swiss mercenaries who were often forced by poor economics to sell their ’services to a variety of nations. It was in his native Zurich where Zwingli established a reformed movement more radical in style than Luther’s. Like Luther, Zwingli accepted two sacraments but disagreed with him over the meaning of the Lord’s Supper. While Luther argued that a real presence of Jesus coexisted with the bread and wine (called consubstantiation – ”two substances together”), Zwingli held Luther’s position to be illogical. Jesus was in heaven at the right hand of the Father and could not be present in body and blood during services; the sacrament was symbolic only. In the context of the mounting power of the emperor, Luther and Zwingli met to attempt to settle their disagreement. The subsequent Marburg Colloquy failed miserably. With no German allies, Zwingli was killed in 1531 in the Swiss Civil War. Before he died, however, Zwingli had laid the basis for a different style of worship. Followers of Zwingli broke organs, smashed statues, and painted churches white, all in an effort to focus the believer’s attention on the Word of God by eliminating “distractions.”

The first 20 years of the Reformation saw great, ferment and experimentation. In many areas, women first accepted the ’reform message, spreading the gospel and converting their husbands, father, and brothers. A famous example was Catherine Zell (1498-1562), who along with her husband Matthias, preached, wrote, and ministered to the poor. One movement most associated with ,this trend toward equality was Anabaptism. Anabaptists believed membership in a Christian community issued from an adult choice, and therefore practiced adult baptism. More importantly, they tended to take the Bible literally when it came to living a life apart from worldly temptations. Because they practiced adult baptism – thereby putting the souls of unbaptized babies in peril – and advocated the total separation of church and state, Anabaptists were hated by Catholics and Protestants alike. However, with a few exceptions, Anabaptists lived in small, peaceful communities and posed little real threat to the state.

Magisterial Reform in England

The most famous example of magisterial reform occurred in England. Though Lutheran ideas had gained a few adherents in the kingdom, Henry VIII (1509-1547) tolerated no opposition to the Catholic faith, having earned the title Defender of the Faith for penning a response to Luther’s attack on the sacraments. However, matters of state intervened, Henry had no male heir, which he blamed on his “barren” wife, Catherine of Aragon. Normally, Henry’s appeal for a divorce would have been granted by Pope Clement VII (1523-1534), but he was under the control of Charles V, who happened to be the nephew of Catherine.

After years and numerous appeals, Henry decided in 1533-1534 to act with the support of the Parliament. First, the Parliament declared Henry the head of the new Anglican Church with the Act of Supremacy. Further, the Act of Succession legitimated the offspring (the future Elizabeth I) of Henry and Anne Boleyn, his new wife. With the aid of his primary advisor, Thomas Cromwell, Henry also moved to confiscate the lands of the church. However, Henry held no interest in religious reform, getting parliament to confirm distinctive Catholic practices such as clerical celibacy in the Six Articles. Many English reformers, such as the new Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, wished to take the reform further. They would have to wait until Henry died and his sickly teenage son, Edward VI (1547-1553), succeeded him in 1547.

Under Edward, the reform moved in a Zwinglian direction, with a new Book of Common Prayer and Act of Uniformity providing a simpler interpretation of worship. Edward’s early death in 1553 turned England back once again into the Catholic camp, under Mary I (1553-1558), the daughter of the scorned Catherine of Aragon and wife of the Most Holy Catholic Philip II (1556-1598), king of Spain. Mary’s persecution of Protestants, memorialized in the famous Foxe’s Book of Martyrs, and pro-Spanish foreign policy earned her the nickname Bloody Mary and did little in the long run to reestablish Catholicism in England.

It was Elizabeth I (1558- 1603) who met with the most success in establishing a compromise, the Elizabethan Settlement. Under house arrest for much of her youth, Elizabeth learned the dangers of religious dogmatism. In fact, Elizabeth represented a new type of leader, termed a politique, or one who places political unity above conformity to religious dogma. During her reign, Elizabeth entertained many suitors but ultimately adopted the role of national matriarch, never marrying. She refrained from persecuting religious minorities – with the exception of Catholics – and sponsored a new Book of Common Prayer, vague enough in its language to satisfy all interpretations. These compromises were cemented in the Thirty-Nine Articles. At the same time, Elizabeth could play the lion,” as she demonstrated by executing her cousin, Mary of Scotland, for plotting against her, and defending England in 1588 against the impending Spanish Armada. By the end of her reign, often called the Golden Age, Elizabeth had established England as the leading Protestant power in Europe.

EXAMPLE BASE Many of the examples in this section on the range of Protestant reformers are required knowledge; however, you should take a moment to place them on a continuum of radical to conservative. As you look across the diagram, take note of the diversity of interpretations of religious reform.

Social Impact of the Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was primarily a religious movement, but it also altered social life. Movements of intellectual or cultural change often attract those-women, peasants, workers, minorities-who wish to change other features of society. Invariably, these reform movements eventually come to institutionalize new beliefs and practices to avoid more wrenching changes. In that sense, the Protestant Reformation can be viewed as a significant shift but also a lost opportunity for many groups. We now look briefly at several affected areas:

Family and gender As a result of the Protestant Reformation, family was placed at the center of social life. Celibacy was abolished, and many former clergy, like Luther, took spouses and glorified the marital bond as the most natural and God-like. For women, the results were mixed. Though women preached early on and earned limited rights of divorce, as well as education, Luther, Calvin, and other reformers preached that women’s natural sphere was the domestic. Finally, religious vocations and female religious images were removed from Protestant churches.
Education There is no doubt that the Protestant Reformation spurred education. With the emphasis on Bible-reading, it was important to ensure literacy for boys and girls. Luther’s colleague and defender, Philip Melancthon (1497-1560), earned the nickname Praeceptor Germanie (Teacher of Germany) for advocating a system of basic schooling called the Gymnasia. After the establishment of the Jesuits, Catholic nations also began to place increasing importance on education.
Social classes Other than the firebrands, few reformers explicitly argued for social equality. However, some historians have argued that a “Protestant work ethic” spurred the development of capitalism, and thus strengthened the middle class. In theory, the emphasis on deferred gratification and building a godly city on earth led to an ethic of hard work and capital accumulation. (This interpretation is problematic, but you probably will earn points in an essay for mentioning it.)
Religious practices For centuries, European religious life had centered around the church calendar, with its saints’ feast days, Carnival and Lent, sacraments, and rituals. In many lands, these practices were either abolished or modified. Protestant nations placed more emphasis on Bible-reading and sought to eliminate externals, such as relics, pilgrimages, and festivals. Also, the Reformation led to an increased concern with regulation of public morality, and even many. Catholic nations attempted more rigorously to monitor excessive practices and curb long-accepted sins like prostitution.