AP European History
AP European History
Renaissance culture began in Italy but quickly spread via the new printing press and along trade routes to the rest of Europe. It was particularly strong in the Low Countries (today’s Netherlands and Belgium), France, England, and Germany, though almost every nation experienced some manifestation of humanist learning and classical revival.
Though northern humanists employed the same tactics of textual analysis and criticism as their Italian neighbors, their emphasis tended to be on Christian readings, such as the Bible, but also included the writings of the early church fathers (St. Augustine, for example). For this reason, northern humanism is often called Christian humanism. In general, Christian humanists criticized many of the Catholic Church’s abuses, but wished to maintain the unity of Christianity by reforming from within. Many intelligent observers recognized that the ark of the church was listing badly and desperately needed repairs. The split that occurred in the 16th century revolved around this issue – whether the ship could be saved or should simply be abandoned in favor of a more stable vessel. Years before Luther, Christian humanists urged a reform, primarily through education, which would rescue the church from its worldliness and corruption. Though numerous Christian humanists labored to save the church, two clearly stand out for their literary accomplishments and clear teachings.
Before we address Erasmus and Thomas More, we need to paint a picture of late medieval spirituality. Maybe the best word to describe the mood of the 14th and 15th centuries is “anxiety.” Amidst the death and upheaval of the plague, Great Schism, and political breakdown, European Christians became obsessed with securing eternal life. On one hand, this fear fed the mechanical exercises of indulgences, relic veneration, and pilgrimages. Desiring a positive relationship with God, some Christians turned to mysticism – the belief that the believer can bridge the gap between himself and the Almighty through meditation, prayer, and other acts of devotion. A popular book in this regard was Thomas à Kempis’s Imitation of Christ, which provided daily readings to commune with God. In the Low Countries and Germany, an organization of laypersons (not members of the clergy) called the Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life ministered to the poor, founded schools for the education of character, and supported each other in living a Christian life. Religion remained dear to many; if it had not, the influence of the Catholic Church might have faded slowly without any disruptive spread of a new and vibrant Protestant theology.
Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) became the most famous intellectual of his day, and his name remains a symbol of tolerance and scholarship. Raised in a monastic environment, he never took vows, claiming)1e had “a Catholic soul but a Lutheran stomach” (and thus not able to withstand the church’s demand for ritual fasting). With humor and style, Erasmus mocked the clergy and its abuses in works such as the Praise of Folly, which was eventually placed on the Index of Prohibited Books. Erasmus’s primary message, as seen in Handbook of the Christian Knight and On Civility in Children, lay in the power of education to promote true reverence for God and in living out the Gospel message. Protected by powerful patrons, Erasmus condemned fanaticism of all kinds, and while his reputation remained undiminished by his death, his voice of moderation had been drowned out by extremists on all sides. He might have opposed the sentiment, but it is often said that “Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched.”
Perhaps no intellectual better represents the bridging of the medieval and modern worlds than Thomas More (1478-1535). A man of deep piety (More wore a hairshirt – a rough and painful undergarment made of goat’s wool-to mortify his flesh throughout much of his life), More well understood the game of worldly success, but always kept a careful eye on the next world. More’s talents brought him to the attention of the monarchy, where he served in Parliament and as the first nonclerical Lord Chancellor (the highest judicial position in England). More’s literary fame rests primarily on Utopia, a satire of 16th-century European society, and vision of a better life based on communal living. A friend of Erasmus, More possessed less of his comrade’s moderate tendencies. More was willing to die for his beliefs, which occurred when he opposed Henry VIII’s takeover of the Catholic Church. More was also willing to kill for them, as he oversaw the burning of accused heretics as Lord Chancellor. The scholar’s last days were spent in the Tower of London, before his beheading in 1535, another victim of the growing rift between religious and political authority.
In art, northern humanism eventually adopted the techniques of Italian painters, including perspective and an emphasis on naturalism. However, northern artists tended to focus more on the theological and emotional content of Christian depictions, instead of classical architecture and wealthy patrons, as among Italian artists. In addition, northern painters, such as Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-1569), portrayed scenes of everyday life, including peasants, agriculture, or the simple customs that tied together small communities.